Part of the DNA genetic profiles of a whole family
1) Describe it:
*Involves the studying of the results of gel electrophoresis tests to determine how a DNA sample is different than normal.
2) Analyze it:
* First, DNA samples are put through gel electrophoresis, which was talked about in a previous section. This gives the DNA a unique blotting result, from where the DNA was separated by the restriction enzymes. *Then, the result is measured and compared to either typical results or results from other people. One person's DNA should always come back with the same results, giving him a typical 'fingerprint', if you will.
3) Apply it:
*These results can be used to determine if one has a mutation, a disease, if one is directly related to another person, to help map out one's genome, or even to find out if someone committed a crime (where DNA found at the crime scene can be matched back to it's owner).
4) Synthesize:
*It reminds me of how one can identify an olympic runner simply by how fast he runs compared to an average person.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*I am absolutely for this, as it is a creative, simple and safe solution to many different problems.
Gene Therapy
1) Describe it:
*This is the insertion of a gene/ genes straight into the DNA sequence of an individual to combat the effects of one's disease. This is a relatively new field.
2) Analyze it:
*The idea is to combat the effects of a disease (typically one where one base pair is omitted or replaced).
The base pairs are inserted via vectors, which are normally genetically engineered viruses, which naturally replace human DNA with their own, and can replace disease-creating DNA with the normal genes.
*Therapeutic DNA can also be injected straight into the cells. This however requires much DNA and it only works on certain tissues.
*Typically they inject these straight into something such as bone marrow, where bone marrow cells can trade genetic information with the cells around it.
*Interestingly, scientists are even working on a way of possibly bringing in a 47th chromosome into a cell as a vector. This could bring in lots of genetic information, and might not affect the other 46. However, this task is deceptively difficult, as the chromosome would be very hard to introduce into the cell given its size.
3) Apply it:
*This can be used to combat diseases resulting from single base pair replacements and deletions.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of giving someone a shot to combat a disease, whereas this type directly affects one's genome to attempt to rid the genetic problem instead of combatting the symptoms.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*Gene therapy is not perfect. The treatment will most likely not last any long length of time.
*Also we can never be too sure how exactly the human body will respond to the new gene.
*The question is if this process will be effective in the future, and if it will be worth the numerous ethical questions.
*Animals that have had their genomes modified to produce proteins at a faster rate than cell cultures.
2) Analyze it:
*Creates an embryo in vitro, takes a gene from a third 'parent' and inserts the gene into the embryo and inserts it back into a mother. The resulting animal will produce the protein made by the inserted gene much more en masse than in a cell culture.
3) Apply it:
*Some uses thought of so far include: goats engineered to produce certain proteins within it's milk, and chickens producing large amounts of the protein within their eggs.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of the gooses that lay gold eggs in Willy Wonka, as they are used by the company to make chocolate eggs (if I remember correctly).
5) Argue for or Against it:
*One main argument against this deals with when exactly have we crossed the line. Many say this could lead us into some form of eugenics, whether it is simply choosing the traits one wants an animal to exhibit, or possibly crossing over into more extreme versions. I believe this is a legitimate argument that must be seriously evaluated when this type of genetic research becomes more prevalent.
Transgenic Plants (GMOs)
1) Describe it:
*Takes transgenic animals to a new level, where plants that create the protein could be grown in fields to create some proteins en masse.
2) Analyze it:
*It is easier to make transgenic plants than animals. *The process is largely the same.
3) Apply it:
*Genes can be introduced to make plants more resistant to disease and herbicide (in which the latter would allow farmers to spray down their crop to kill the weeds while not having to worry about the crops being harmed). It also could make them resistant to salt, so crops could be grown in places considered too salty for normal crops. They can also be engineered to be more resistant to insects.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of the trees in The Happening, that develop and release a toxin to get back at humans for deforestation.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*In addition to the ethical questions, transgenic plants might not be safe for consumption. The genes making corn resistant to herbicide might escape into weeds, making them almost impossible to control.
Genetic Profiles (DNA forensic testing)
Alternate way to create a profile
1) Describe it:
*This is one's 'DNA fingerprint', although scientists prefer 'genetic profile' due to the connotation that one's 'DNA fingerprint' is specifically for identification, despite its wide array of uses.
*Helps identify individuals.
2) Analyze it:
*Use to use gel electrophoresis and southern blotting, but recently has bettered to a system that counts the number of Short Tandem Repeats (STR's, which are repeats of the same specific 2-5 base pair sequence) within one's DNA. This counts the number of these within a certain locus. Since everyone's DNA is different, the number of these repeats differ from person to person.
*The number is very specific, especially if many different STRs are analyzed at once. For example, if 13 STRs are examined at once, the odds that two people will have the same amount is at most one in a billion.
*I believe the picture demonstrates one way of testing DNA via examining STRs, although it doesn't specifically say how they examine the DNA.
3) Apply it:
*Helped identify victims of 9/11, and other related incidents.
*This can be used in many ways similar to gel electrophoresis, as it can be used to identify who did a crime or settle paternity cases.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of credit card, as the numbers on the card and the strip on the card are specific enough to be identified as the owner every time.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*I am for this, since it is harmless and is in many, many cases, very helpful as it is much faster and more accurate than gel electrophoresis.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLPs)
Part of the DNA genetic profiles of a whole family
1) Describe it:
*Involves the studying of the results of gel electrophoresis tests to determine how a DNA sample is different than normal.
2) Analyze it:
* First, DNA samples are put through gel electrophoresis, which was talked about in a previous section. This gives the DNA a unique blotting result, from where the DNA was separated by the restriction enzymes.
*Then, the result is measured and compared to either typical results or results from other people. One person's DNA should always come back with the same results, giving him a typical 'fingerprint', if you will.
3) Apply it:
*These results can be used to determine if one has a mutation, a disease, if one is directly related to another person, to help map out one's genome, or even to find out if someone committed a crime (where DNA found at the crime scene can be matched back to it's owner).
4) Synthesize:
*It reminds me of how one can identify an olympic runner simply by how fast he runs compared to an average person.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*I am absolutely for this, as it is a creative, simple and safe solution to many different problems.
Gene Therapy
1) Describe it:
*This is the insertion of a gene/ genes straight into the DNA sequence of an individual to combat the effects of one's disease. This is a relatively new field.
2) Analyze it:
*The idea is to combat the effects of a disease (typically one where one base pair is omitted or replaced).
- The base pairs are inserted via vectors, which are normally genetically engineered viruses, which naturally replace human DNA with their own, and can replace disease-creating DNA with the normal genes.
*Therapeutic DNA can also be injected straight into the cells. This however requires much DNA and it only works on certain tissues.*Typically they inject these straight into something such as bone marrow, where bone marrow cells can trade genetic information with the cells around it.
*Interestingly, scientists are even working on a way of possibly bringing in a 47th chromosome into a cell as a vector. This could bring in lots of genetic information, and might not affect the other 46. However, this task is deceptively difficult, as the chromosome would be very hard to introduce into the cell given its size.
3) Apply it:
*This can be used to combat diseases resulting from single base pair replacements and deletions.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of giving someone a shot to combat a disease, whereas this type directly affects one's genome to attempt to rid the genetic problem instead of combatting the symptoms.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*Gene therapy is not perfect. The treatment will most likely not last any long length of time.
*Also we can never be too sure how exactly the human body will respond to the new gene.
*The question is if this process will be effective in the future, and if it will be worth the numerous ethical questions.
Transgenic Animals (Genetically Modified Organisms~ GMOs)
1) Describe it:
*Animals that have had their genomes modified to produce proteins at a faster rate than cell cultures.
2) Analyze it:
*Creates an embryo in vitro, takes a gene from a third 'parent' and inserts the gene into the embryo and inserts it back into a mother. The resulting animal will produce the protein made by the inserted gene much more en masse than in a cell culture.
3) Apply it:
*Some uses thought of so far include: goats engineered to produce certain proteins within it's milk, and chickens producing large amounts of the protein within their eggs.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of the gooses that lay gold eggs in Willy Wonka, as they are used by the company to make chocolate eggs (if I remember correctly).
5) Argue for or Against it:
*One main argument against this deals with when exactly have we crossed the line. Many say this could lead us into some form of eugenics, whether it is simply choosing the traits one wants an animal to exhibit, or possibly crossing over into more extreme versions. I believe this is a legitimate argument that must be seriously evaluated when this type of genetic research becomes more prevalent.
Transgenic Plants (GMOs)
1) Describe it:
*Takes transgenic animals to a new level, where plants that create the protein could be grown in fields to create some proteins en masse.
2) Analyze it:
*It is easier to make transgenic plants than animals.
*The process is largely the same.
3) Apply it:
*Genes can be introduced to make plants more resistant to disease and herbicide (in which the latter would allow farmers to spray down their crop to kill the weeds while not having to worry about the crops being harmed). It also could make them resistant to salt, so crops could be grown in places considered too salty for normal crops. They can also be engineered to be more resistant to insects.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of the trees in The Happening, that develop and release a toxin to get back at humans for deforestation.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*In addition to the ethical questions, transgenic plants might not be safe for consumption. The genes making corn resistant to herbicide might escape into weeds, making them almost impossible to control.
Genetic Profiles (DNA forensic testing)
Alternate way to create a profile
1) Describe it:
*This is one's 'DNA fingerprint', although scientists prefer 'genetic profile' due to the connotation that one's 'DNA fingerprint' is specifically for identification, despite its wide array of uses.
*Helps identify individuals.
2) Analyze it:
*Use to use gel electrophoresis and southern blotting, but recently has bettered to a system that counts the number of Short Tandem Repeats (STR's, which are repeats of the same specific 2-5 base pair sequence) within one's DNA. This counts the number of these within a certain locus. Since everyone's DNA is different, the number of these repeats differ from person to person.
*The number is very specific, especially if many different STRs are analyzed at once. For example, if 13 STRs are examined at once, the odds that two people will have the same amount is at most one in a billion.
*I believe the picture demonstrates one way of testing DNA via examining STRs, although it doesn't specifically say how they examine the DNA.
3) Apply it:
*Helped identify victims of 9/11, and other related incidents.
*This can be used in many ways similar to gel electrophoresis, as it can be used to identify who did a crime or settle paternity cases.
4) Synthesize:
*This reminds me of credit card, as the numbers on the card and the strip on the card are specific enough to be identified as the owner every time.
5) Argue for or Against it:
*I am for this, since it is harmless and is in many, many cases, very helpful as it is much faster and more accurate than gel electrophoresis.
Sources of the last two parts:
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/TransgenicPlants.html
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iii/biotechnology/plant-cloning.php
http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/articles/article/katarneycolumn11.htm/
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/gene-reading-decode-your-future-with-just-rs-20000/articleshow/7854562.cms
And lots of information from the book